The recent increase in student mental health issues—and in the subsequent challenging behavior in schools—is real and concerning (Racine et al., 2021). But it's even more worrisome when the student who engages in problematic behavior has difficulty taking responsibility and appears unremorseful even after having reflected on the incident. Let's say that Mark pushes Latoya off a chair, takes her place, and then offers an uncaring response when the teacher asks him about it. Although this behavior may appear malicious and unkind, it may be due to a lack of important perspective-taking skills. Students require such skills to accurately read situations, understand the effect of their behavior on others, own their mistakes, empathize, and, most important, behave compassionately and appropriately (Bengtsson & Arvidsson, 2011; Nijhof et al., 2021).
Typically, school teams, including counselors, administrators, behavior specialists, psychologists, and teachers, don't identify gaps in students' perspective-taking skills, nor take into account the effect of those gaps on student behavior (Minahan, 2014). This is particularly the case among secondary school students, who often lack these skills despite adults' assumptions that they should possess them at their age. This is significant because if school personnel view a student's behavior as purposeful and full of malintent, it can increase the likelihood of punitive responses and negative interactions, such as angry teacher reactions or student suspensions or placement in restrictive settings (Koslouski et al., 2023). Such standard school responses to challenging behavior don't teach perspective-taking skills, so behavioral recurrences will probably result. However, if we understand that a student's perspective-taking ability can contribute to problematic behavior and we know how to teach perspective-taking effectively, we can empower school teams to more accurately interpret the underlying causes of that behavior and fortify students with skills to promote long-term positive behavior change.
The Problem with Processing
One conventional school-based response to problematic behavior is holding a processing conversation with the student. In the case of Mark pushing Latoya, the teacher might take Mark immediately aside and engage him in a series of scaffolded questions to help him understand his actions. Questions might include, "Didn't you see that Latoya was sitting there?" "How do you think she feels?" and "How would you feel if she did that to you?" After the incident, teachers might also offer the student a reflection sheet that asks them to respond to similar questions, which the teacher, counselor, or administrator would then review. Finally, consequences and incentives may be put in place to motivate the student to not repeat the behavior. For example, the teacher might give Mark a certain number of points if he doesn't engage in such behavior again. But these approaches don't teach or fortify perspective-taking skills.
The problem with this conventional approach is that answering questions that try to get students to better understand their actions actually requires well-developed perspective-taking skills. When students lack these skills, they offer unexpected answers that appear inappropriate, entitled, and unkind. To the question, "Didn't you see that Latoya was sitting there?" Mark might answer, "No, I didn't," and shrug. To the question, "How do you think she feels?" he might reply, "She's faking it. Those aren't real tears!" And when asked, "How would you feel if she did that to you?" Mark might even counter, "I'd like to be pushed. Go ahead and push me. I prefer to be on the floor anyway."
When time passes and the student’s anxiety level decreases, their perspective-taking skills become more accurate.
Asking Mark these questions when he lacks the skills to answer them is unhelpful, and his responses can lead to distressed teacher reactions and entrenched negative assumptions about who Mark is. To understand Mark's behavior and prevent further occurrences, it's more effective to determine which perspective-taking skills he needs to acquire to understand the situation and then teach those skills explicitly. I'm not suggesting that school staff assess all students in this area, but simply that they become aware of and knowledgeable about the effect of perspective-taking on student misbehavior.
Understanding Perspective-Taking in Four Contexts
Perspective-taking skills can influence behavior and fluctuate within an individual based on many factors, such as anxiety and trauma history (Curtiss et al., 2021; Nijhof et al., 2021). Anxiety and emotions have a significant effect on perspective-taking, particularly during or immediately following an incident. When an individual is anxious, depressed, trauma-triggered, or emotionally flooded, their perspective-taking becomes distorted (Curtiss et al., 2021). For example, if you spilled coffee on yourself and badly stained your shirt while getting out of your car on your way into school, you might assume that anyone in the hallway glancing in your direction has noticed the coffee stain and is thinking negatively about you. You think they're thinking that you're clumsy or that you're just too careless to change your stained shirt or that you don't even have the wits about you to know the spot is there. The fact is, they're most likely thinking none of these things.
When someone is in an anxious state—for example, a student just involved in an incident—they will typically default to such inaccurate thinking, assuming that everyone is thinking badly about them. Anxiety-related perspectives have safety benefits in a threat situation because they enable a person to be hyperalert and self-protective. For example, crossing the street at night to avoid a stranger you believe has malicious intent toward you could avert danger. However, in a routine situation or conflict, anxiety will make it hard for the participant to accurately perceive the incident.
When someone is in an anxious state, they will typically default to inaccurate thinking, assuming that everyone is thinking badly about them.
School personnel can use standardized methods, such as testing through special education evaluations, to formally assess a student's perspective-taking ability (Barnes-Holmes, McHugh, & Barnes-Holmes, 2004; Schaffer, 1996). However, before choosing interventions in response to student behavior, it's helpful to understand this skill in four contexts: (1) when students consider a hypothetical example; (2) when they observe an incident taking place in front of them; (3) when they reflect on a past incident in which they were involved; and (4) when they're actively involved in an incident that has just occurred.
Context 1. When Students Consider a Hypothetical Example that Does Not Involve Them
It's easiest to understand another's thoughts and feelings when the hypothetical situation presented is retrospective and doesn't involve the student. For example, showing a student a picture of a woman who has dropped and broken a vase—a hypothetical situation that has nothing to do with the student—won't provoke anxiety. If we asked, "How does this woman feel?" many students would say that she probably feels unhappy or frustrated. Students who are able to take another person's perspective in this context often can understand the point of view and feelings of characters in books and movies. Notably, students with autism may struggle with this more than others.
Context 2. When Students Observe—and Are Not Involved in—an Incident
In this context, students are witnessing a situation in real time, such as two peers fighting on the other side of the cafeteria. This can not only increase the observer's anxiety, but also trigger the emotions of a student with a history of trauma. If the student is asked to comment on the incident, their heightened anxiety can impair their ability to understand each participant's perspective and feelings, and they may not be able to accurately report what happened or who was at fault. Any preexisting relationship with one of the students involved—whether it's friendly or not—can add more emotion to the moment.
Context 3. When Students Reflect on a Past Incident in Which They Were Involved
We have all observed a student who struggles right after an incident with taking responsibility and perhaps doesn't show remorse, but who comes back to school the next day with a more accurate perspective on the event. Perhaps an administrator has checked in with the student before school starts or the counselor or teacher has revisited the incident with the student to be sure they're feeling calmer. The student may acknowledge their responsibility by saying, "Well, maybe I made a bad call yesterday." When time passes and the student's anxiety level decreases, their perspective-taking skills become more accurate (Curtiss et al., 2021).
Context 4. When Students Are Involved in an Incident in Real Time
It's precisely during or shortly after an incident in which a student has been involved that their anxiety is highest, often triggered by trauma, and their perspective-taking skills are the most impaired. As a result, in this context, students are the most defensive, the most vigilant, and the most protective of themselves. Certain school responses to poor behavior, such as pointing out fault, repeatedly asking questions that require perspective-taking skills to answer, and accusing the student of negative intent can easily escalate the student's anxiety and protective responses. The student simply lacks the skills to see the situation differently in this moment, and attempts to get them to take responsibility or show adequate remorse can be futile.
Using an Understanding of Context to Respond
To improve a student's perspective-taking skills, the choice of when, where, and how to teach the student those skills must align with the perspective-taking context the student is currently able to understand. If a student has shown that they're unable to accurately read another's perspective in context 4—when they're involved in an incident—when such an incident does arise, school teams should delay any processing attempt until significant time has passed, perhaps waiting a day or two to address the situation with the student. By delaying the processing of an incident—and letting the student know that the processing will be postponed—the student will be less anxious and more open to seeing another's perspective. Having the student answer questions in writing about the incident after some time has passed is also helpful because the student's perspective-taking skills may have improved by then. If we fall back on interrogating the student in the moment, we're asking questions they just can't answer (Minahan, 2015).
Why School Practices May Fall Short
Common ways that schools deal with students' perspective-taking skills may not support students beyond context 1, leaving adults feeling powerless or as though they're repeating themselves like a broken record. If tested in a special education context, most students won't be found eligible for perspective-taking support because such testing only assesses perspective-taking in context 1, in that hypothetical situation that doesn't involve the student. Many anxious students can pass that assessment, although they struggle in real-time situations. Even when specialized support for such skills is delivered, either as a whole-class lesson or by pulling students into small groups with a counselor or special educator, the lessons heavily rely on hypothetical situations that involve role-plays, intellectual exercises, and incidents pulled from books and stories. These interventions may not yield positive behavior change in contexts 2 through 4 for some students.
Clarifying Perspective: A Visual Approach
Just as we would never teach math purely verbally without using any visuals, we should not go about teaching perspective-taking skills relying solely on repetitive conversations. Visually supported perspective-taking instruction, specifically using drawings, has been shown to work more effectively (Beidas et al., 2013; Patriarca, Pettit, & Silverman, 2022; Raman, 2021; Stallard, 2020). School personnel can draw an event in cartoon form with thought bubbles and speech bubbles, deconstructing the incident. The visual representations shown in Comic Strip Conversations: Illustrated Interactions that Teach Conversation Skills to Students with Autism and Related Disorders (Gray, 1994) provide instruction and examples (see also Gallardo, 2011). These drawings lay out a sequence of still frames, which helps recreate a behavior incident visually. No artistic skills are required; we're talking about drawing stick figures.
For example, let's say Jeff bangs into Sam's shoulder while rushing through the hallway. If Sam struggles with context 4—understanding someone's perspective in a real-time incident—he's likely to interpret Jeff's behavior as purposeful because he's now either in an anxious or a trauma-triggered state. Thus, his response may be verbally aggressive or harmful, which is probably why school personnel were called on to intervene. After interviewing both Jeff and Sam, as well as a teacher who observed the incident, an administrator or a counselor could draw out this incident in comic strip format, using five boxes, making sure not to add facial expressions that could bias perception (see fig. 1). In the first box, they might depict the stick figure of a student running (Jeff). The second box might show the stick figure getting closer to stick figure Sam. The third box could show the "incident," the student bumping into Sam. The fourth and fifth boxes could show stick figure Jeff running off to his class.
The administrator or counselor will need to make two copies of the comic strip. They will use the first one to record Sam's perspective and the second one to offer a more objective account of the incident. There should be a thought bubble drawn above each stick figure. The counselor or administrator can point to each bubble in turn and ask Sam, "What is Jeff thinking?" If Sam struggles with perspective-taking in contexts 3 and 4, his answers are likely to be distorted. For example, he may say that in the first box Jeff was thinking "I'm going to push Sam!"
At this point, the counselor or administrator should take out their own copy of the comic strip; they will have filled in the thought bubble above stick figure Jeff with a different intention. They might say, "Can I show you what I think happened?" They would explain that Jeff may not have been targeting Sam at all and instead might have been thinking, "Oh man, I'm so late for class!" With this corrective perspective-taking and skill-building approach, Sam may come to realize that his negative thoughts ("Jeff wants to get me!") and his resulting aggressive response may not have been justified, and he may better understand the effect of his behavior on Jeff, who is now scared, angry, or sad. The comic strip that Sam filled out illustrates his initial perspective-taking skills; this, along with future comic strips, can serve as a form of progress monitoring over time.
A student with perspective-taking skills will better understand the effect of their behavior on others, will be more likely to take responsibility for their actions, and will develop more empathy.
Let's consider that earlier example in which Mark pushed Latoya off the chair. The drawing with its thought bubbles can help Mark understand what Latoya might have been thinking and feeling after being pushed and may perhaps deter a reoccurrence. In a more two-way circumstance, such as two students arguing over a turn on the computer, or, even more intense, a fight between two students, the teacher or counselor can draw the situation for each of the students individually, including thought bubbles to better help each of them see things from their peer's point of view. Repeating this approach, starting with less intense situations and addressing different incidents over time, can help the student learn accurate perspective-taking in all four contexts.
It's All About Skill-Building
Educators should be aware of these four contexts and should familiarize themselves with visually paired training in perspective-taking skills (Beidas et al., 2013; Patriarca et al., 2022; Raman, 2021; Stallard, 2020). This will help them not only understand the "why" behind a student's recollection of their behavior, but also avoid assumptions and misunderstandings, which will lead to more appropriate interventions. As a result, the student will acquire more skills in perspective-taking, will better understand the effect of their behavior on others, will be more likely to take responsibility for their actions, and will develop more empathy—and schools will experience fewer behavior incidents throughout the year.
Copyright © 2023 Jessica Minahan
Reflect & Discuss
➛ How might you model perspective-taking skills when dealing with a student whose behavior is problematic?
➛ How might you modify your response to challenging student behavior as a result of reading this article?
